Local politics for democratic quality and depth: Lessons from South Korea

A vast literature debates the causes, workings and consequences of democracy: a Google Scholar search returns some 3.6 million studies on subject; by way contrast, authoritarianism or populism barely reach 350,000. Importantly, expansive interest in democracy is not merely academic. Instead, are irrefutably empirically driven. Earlier work causes effects democracy—such as when, why how do democratic transitions occur, who proponents transitions—was spurred no small part expansion liberal democracies Second Wave democratisation following World War II that, set against backdrop economic crises rise fascism that preceded war, saw booms an expanding middle class United States across Europe (Huntington, 1991; Lipset, 1959; Moore, 1966).11 Huntington's (1991) waves provides useful heuristic to curate immense literature. The scholar First occurring between 1820s 1926, with starting at end peaking 1962, Third 1974 1990. These themes persisted through scholarship transition 1990, voluminous works relationship development explaining predicting spread Southern Europe, Latin America, East Southeast Asia, which appeared coincide growth 1970s 1980s these regions O'Donnell et al., 1986; Przeworski, Remmer, 1991). Notably, events ground also brought new research pursuits, such regional international diffusion democracy, growth, popular support for (Bratton & Mattes, 2001; Brinks Coppedge, 2006; Helliwell, 1994; Pevehouse, 2002). Unsurprisingly, then, recent trends stalling, reversals, backsliding deconsolidation driving latest about quality depth may be defined extent practice approximates its philosophical foundations ‘government people’ (Fishman, 2016).22 While generally focus encompass consolidation, Fishman (2016) discusses four dimensions democracy—authenticity, quality, consolidation—for use theory-building empirical assessments. Recent have called attention need more robust systematic evaluation variability, demise emphasis political factors received little beyond earlier generations (Haggard Kaufman, 2016, p. 126; see Diamond Morlino, 2004; Foa Mounk, 2017; Fuchs Roller, 2018; Kadivar 2020; Yap, 2006). articles this special issue respond calls treatments. In particular, we point out take account local subnational33 terms ‘subnational’ ‘local’ used interchangeably issue. politics their depth. There least reasons study subnational go prima facie case examination furthers understanding quality. First, show ‘nation fixation’, where advances national level supplants local-level processes, has enabled undemocratic regimes (SURs) coexist within framework (Gibson, 2012; Giraudy, 2015). Thus, contrary conventional optimism trickles down over time, national-level SURs due inattention experiences. Empirically, Asia suggest SURs. 2016 Philippines, 30-year anniversary ouster President Ferdinand Marcos from office 1986 People Power revolution was marked resurgence Marcoses: wife Imelda provincial congress representative Ilocos Norte, daughter Imee governor same province son Jr. made competitive run vice presidency elections (Cha 2020). Clearly, developments affect variability despite success level. Systematic politics, must complement complete democracy. Second, key decentralisation—that is, devolution authority governments elected officials levels. global push decentralisation increased prior turn 21st century, aimed improving government responsibility responsiveness citizens' ability demonstrate dissatisfaction representatives removing them (Diaz-Serrano Rodríguez-Pose, 2015; Gélineau Given policy drive decentralisation, sine qua non. This particularly relevant practised majority non-communist, multiparty countries,44 list 17 countries are: China, Mongolia, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, North Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Brunei Timor-Leste. See Nations Online https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/about.html. including Japan held. Third, processes institutions accountability, critical element (Diamond 2004). Accountability can vertical horizontal, accountability refers hold responsible, usually evident when dissatisfied voters throw office, horizontal characterises capacity other monitor check powers Local-level governance capture elements both excesses government, if able responsible performance answerability exists level, directly affects and, consequently, nation. Government politicians asserted uniqueness ‘Asian values’ order slow stop (Kim, 1994). If less directed, promises revealing. Fourth, related consideration narrative exceptionalism re-emerged Asian model—where strong, unconstrained credited directing economies motivating compelling cooperation—across less-developed Africa particular justify slow-down developing prioritised. Yet, Cha Yap (2020) out, evidence exceptionalism, even absent. Examination highly now, narratives model adopted stymie towards And, it especially emulated globally. local- Korea (hereafter referred Korea). With single country case, political, social variances held constant, so findings broadly generalisable. several grounds. among original Tigers’, included Singapore Hong Kong, first Tigers decades autocratic military-supported perceptions regarding model, stayed course challenges contemporaries struggled 2016; Huntington, 2005). success, pays examine Korea's formally devolved power Local Autonomy Act enacted 1988—that immediately transition—to pave governments. Political followed, council instituted 1991 1995, respectively (Lee 2021; Shin Jhee, 2021). Finally, 2016–2017 Candlelight Revolution—where million-strong protestors demonstrated capital, Seoul, cities then-president Park Geun-hye leading impeachment sitting president—underscores considerable might civil society, emerged driver transition, progress consolidation (Fuchs Haggard magnitude force seismic shifts Korean two instances—constitutional 1988 constitutional removal president 2017—warrants role society what they mean support. sections, briefly survey situate current responses previously overlooked We provide overviews papers then conclude implications findings. According Huntington (1991), 30 pursued during largest wave date. Democratic flourished period decade building pioneering Lipset (1959) requisites Moore (1966) multiple outcomes driven conflict amplified modernisation. Debates precipitate primary drivers transition—specifically, whether led transitions, labour, class, elites, conflict—drew examples America Europe. Meanwhile, cases were cited responded inevitable sweep varied revolutionary people's power, liberalisation elites top-down, slowly calibrated change (Jones, 1998; However, just number looked outpace non-democracies, many liberalising began stall reverse; erosions gain pace autocracies seemed poised remain (Gandhi, 2019; 2016). reversals backsliding, shifted ‘why’ occurs, ‘what’ constitutes 2004, 20, original; Gandhi, ask: democracy? good news is: valued less-democratic countries. Witness, instance, question ‘How important you live governed democratically?’, captured most public opinion Values Survey (WVS). Of 125,000 participants total 79 7 conducted 2017 2020, clear 51% ‘absolutely important’, 10 10-point scale, while supermajority 75% respondents ranked 8 (Haerpfer Democracy found sought after Asia; citizens willing trade per (Yap, WVS reports 39% 18,000 11 autonomous said democratically, 72% top scale wide embrace contrasts spate decline, described introduction, all reason section, discuss relevance focused formal rule law, participation, elections, executive legislative institutions, sector reforms 20). process, institutional manipulated maintain autocrats' tenure Howard Roessler, Illiberal democracies, hybrid regimes, like, result deliberate purposeful design rather than opportunistic responses. Indeed, Gandhi (2019, e13) notes carried under guise populist rhetoric ‘diminish[ing] elites’ one easiest ways target incapacitate opposition. findings, turn, catalysed next generation into examining ‘political attention’ defending operational assessments 126). Civil citizen factor At elementary, rely breadth ‘commitment values principles’, stated satisfaction 2018, 25). examined attitudes since onset (Park Shin, Nobel peace prize winner former Kim Dae Jung, taken discussion values, motivated apparent contradictions Confucian respect obedience Collective action counteracts stalling decline As Kaufman (2016, pp. 135–136) note, mass mobilisations only half 1980 2008, but had enduring echoed al. (2020), length movements significantly explained capacity-building maintained actor demand deepening. contend another factor, congruent contributions society. offices often springboards higher offices, levels (Stolz, 2003; Thiébault, similar mobilisation, experiential training grounds appointed officials; further, actors future. overview investigate operationalises widely prized, extensively researched, surprising learn there remarkably yields mere 64,000 results, 2% neglect overlooks fact matter ways. Briefly, recap, first, existence 2015); second, region places front centre considerations; third, politics; fourth, interrogation globally Here, summarise future players Korea. Lee (2021) assess politics: authors weigh productivity Busan Metropolitan Council 2006 2018 (the 5th 7th Councils), legislation laws ordinances. Legislative much studied consequence accountability—where legislatures checks balances authority—and legislators constituencies. By overlooked, notwithstanding import ones. Working ordinances proposed Council, apply negative binomial regressions measure individual attributes network analyses explore networks institutionalisation councils, three members increase displaced executive, mayor, suggesting erosion dominance policymaking councils. recently active ordinance proposals, suggests effort representation connectivity voters. spatial proposal communities become diverse multi-centred move personalistic institutionalised politics. results show, individually together, officials. significance cannot overstated, Jhee Suh show. evaluate service delivery. Using confirmatory structural equation modelling data provincial-level governments, fiscal administrative improved local-government delivery On hand, find improve capacity, lending weight training. services lower They spring low finding supports positive impact responsiveness. link trust support, affirm barometers evaluating Specifically, using fourth Barometer Survey, seemingly unrelated reflection constituents dissimilar. takes off buffers democratising systems pressures (Citrin, 1974; Fitzgerald Wolak, 2019). influenced different components those follows (a) potentially performance; (b) therefore, offers bases differentiated conclusions—that distinctive measures depth; serve trust. To summarise, distinct warrant separate treatment calibrating Relatedly, ensure strongly bears reminding driven, fuelled ebbs flows ground. scholars Morlino (2004) refer effectively shifting gears issue, answer call bring means exploring Knowledge accumulation admonishment prominent 126) factors; been mostly overlooked. introduction offer consolidation. Through progress; indeed, subnational- different. further strengthening performance, government. Study theory plumb invite resonance look forward researched National Research Foundation Grant/Award Number: NRF-2018S1A3A2075531